Also, check out our Sustainability Terms Glossary, where we’ll add key terms from each of our Deep Dives over time. Bookmark this page for future reference!
The U.S. recycling system generally gets a bad rap. Many consumers never know what actually happens to a product once it leaves their recycling bin, which has led to misconceptions about whether or not materials get recycled. Additionally, scary headlines that say things like “only 5% of plastic is recycled” can make people feel like all recycling is greenwashing. However, a lot of packaging waste is being recycled in the U.S. – we promise!
In this two-part Deep Dive, we are pulling back the curtain on what it means for something to be “recyclable,” as well as talking about the recycling process and diving into how materials are recycled, the challenges to recycling, and what material recovery facilities, also known as MRFs, are doing to upgrade their facilities and improve recycling processes to raise their rates. (Want to jump straight to how a MRF works? Go to part 2 here).
Before we jump in: this Deep Dive is focused on the recyclability of packaging products. While the definition of “recyclable” that we’ll walk through is more or less standard, the system to collect, sort, and reprocess other products – anything from tires to mattresses to electronics – will look very different than the process for packaging. At the end of this Deep Dive, we’ll touch briefly on some of the consumer confusion this can cause.
Recyclability – What Does It Mean?
In general, the term “recyclable” refers to materials or products that can be collected, processed, and transformed into new products instead of being sent to a landfill as trash. However, there are several factors to consider when determining a material or product’s true recyclability.
Before we dive into those factors, it’s important to note that packaging can end its life either with consumers or businesses. What might be deemed recyclable in one setting may not be in the other.
Typically, when a consumer hears that something is “recyclable,” they assume this means that they can place it in their recycling bin at home, and someone is going to turn it into a new product. This mainstream process of recycling is generally referred to as “curbside recycling.” For the sake of most packaging that reaches a consumer’s home, this is the recycling stream we try to strive for since it’s what most consumers are familiar with, and one that many have easy access to.
Keep in mind, though, that something may be recyclable that doesn’t wind up at a consumer’s home – think about business-to-business packaging that’s disposed in a distribution center, for example. The collection and sortation methods in those cases are completely different than for consumer-bound packaging.
Regardless of who the end-user of the product is, let’s talk about the factors that can influence recyclability. These are generally the factors that groups such as the Sustainable Packaging Coalition, How2Recycle, and The Recycling Partnership use to define recyclability.
Applicable Law
Laws often set standards for what materials can be recycled, how they are labeled for disposal, and how they should be processed. Regulations may require that certain materials be separated from the waste stream to ensure they are recycled properly. For example, New York has a recycling mandate that requires residents and businesses to place recyclable materials in designated bins or containers and dispose of non-recyclable waste in separate trash bins. By requiring the separation of materials, the law helps ensure that recyclables are not contaminated with non-recyclable waste, making them easier to process and increasing recycling rates. Additionally, regulations that dictate how waste is managed, including landfill bans or restrictions on the disposal of certain materials, can influence the recyclability of materials. For example, some laws prohibit the disposal of electronics or hazardous materials in regular trash streams, which encourages them to be properly disposed of and recycled.
Laws and regulations may also play a part in what items can even be labeled as recyclable. For example, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC)’s Green Guides set standards about when it is and is not appropriate for an item to be labeled “recyclable.” These laws are designed to reduce consumer confusion and deception. Groups like How2Recycle are constantly working to align their labeling guidelines with the Green Guides and other such laws in Canada.
Laws can also provide certain incentives to increase the recyclability of a material. The most popular example of this you have likely heard of is deposit return schemes (DRS) for beverage bottles and cans. A DRS encourages the return and recycling of certain materials by charging a small, refundable deposit when something like a drink is purchased in a container and then refunding the deposit when the container is returned empty and undamaged to a designated collection point. The goal of a DRS is to increase recycling rates, reduce waste, and prevent containers from ending up in landfills and the environment. Legislation with this type of monetary incentive has been shown to improve recycling rates for covered materials. Similar incentives can stem from other extended producer responsibility (EPR) laws, such as those we’re seeing implemented in the U.S. (want more on EPR? Check out our Deep Dive).
Conversely, the absence of strong legal frameworks may lead to inadequate recycling systems, resulting in lower recycling rates and increased environmental impact. Thus, applicable laws shape both the opportunities and limitations of material recyclability by establishing the regulatory environment in which recycling occurs.
Collection
Collection is the first step in the recycling process, so the ability of a product to be collected is crucial to its overall recyclability. Collection of certain materials can be limited depending on access to recycling infrastructure, consumer participation, material composition, and collection costs.
In areas where recycling infrastructure is sparse or non-existent, even products that are technically recyclable (see “reprocessability” below) may not be able to be collected effectively, reducing their actual recyclability. Products are easier to collect and gather in sufficient quantities to create a legitimate market when there are existing waste management systems like curbside recycling programs or accessible store drop-off (SDO) recycling programs. For example, many areas or types of homes still do not have access to basic curbside recycling programs, or if they do, they only can include some kinds of packaging. This is particularly common in rural areas and multi-family homes. If a packaging product is only collected by recycling programs in the most urban areas, for instance, it would be difficult to claim that it’s really “recyclable” nationwide. Typically, the threshold we see used is that if 60% of the population has convenient access to a program that collects a material, it checks the box as being commonly collected. Groups like The Recycling Partnership and the Sustainable Packaging Coalition conduct surveys to assess these access rates.
Some products simply don’t make sense to collect because there is minimal economic value for recyclers to collect and sell the material. A common misconception about recycling is that it’s done as a public service because it’s good for the environment. Municipalities often support recycling for this reason, but recycling is ultimately driven by economics. Companies that collect and sort recyclables do so because they can sell the material to a reprocessor at some profit. If a material does not carry enough value for them to do so, it is rarely collected. This can create another barrier to ensuring that products are collected for recycling.
Sortability
Typically, at least in the U.S. and in residential systems, we co-mingle our paper and packaging recyclables in “single stream” recycling – i.e., your bottles, cans, paper, and glass all go in the same container. However, for companies to sell the materials to reprocessors, they need to be sorted by material. Household curbside recycling – which, again, is made up of paper and packaging products only – usually heads to a MRF to be sorted and baled for sale.
Again, remember that the success of recycling ultimately comes down to economics. A MRF needs to be able to sort materials by type with the least amount of contamination possible, because the amount of money they can sell a bale of any given material for depends on its cleanliness. For instance, if a MRF is trying to sell a bale of #1 plastic (PET, what you typically find in beverage bottles), they will receive less money from a buyer if there is contamination from other kinds of plastics, paper, leftover food, etc.
So, when all those materials wind up at a MRF, how are they sorted?
The proper sortation of items at a MRF depends on certain design considerations and material identification. Products designed with recycling in mind (considering material type and purity, size, shape, and ease of disassembly) are more likely to be effectively sorted and recycled, reducing waste and contributing to a more efficient recycling system. Complex products that require a greater effort to disassemble won’t be sorted effectively. Also, small items like bottle caps or plastic straws can fall through the sorting machinery, ending up in the wrong material stream or being discarded altogether. Conversely, products that are too large or irregularly shaped can jam equipment, leading to inefficiencies or contamination. Flat objects like paper or thin plastics might be mistaken for each other, leading to sorting errors. For example, a flat plastic lid might be sorted with paper, contaminating the paper stream and reducing its recyclability.
Products designed with a single material type are also generally easier to sort and recycle. Multi-material products, such as laminated packaging, can be challenging to separate at the MRF. Additionally, products with labels, adhesives, or some inks that are difficult to remove or that interfere with the sorting process can reduce recyclability. For example, picture a beverage container, like a plastic chocolate milk bottle, that has a shrink-wrapped sleeve around it. This sleeve is usually a different kind of plastic than the bottle itself, which poses a problem. This sleeve can make it difficult for the MRF’s sorting equipment to distinguish between the label material from the bottle material and potentially mis-categorize the material. While automated sorting is efficient, some products require manual sorting due to their complexity. Products that are easy for workers to identify and separate will have higher recyclability.
The physical mechanics of how items are sorted at MRFs is so complicated that we’ll talk more about it in part 2 of this Deep Dive.
Let’s quickly revisit recyclables that don’t go to consumer’s homes. If a material ended its life at a business and was disposed of there (for example, in the back of a warehouse), it is unlikely that it would go to a MRF to be sorted and recycled. Instead, many recyclables at places like retail stores, distribution centers, and warehouses are at least somewhat sorted there and may be picked up by different companies. For example, a big-box store may have one company come pick up their cardboard waste, while another comes to pick up their stretch and shrink film. Typically, these materials are then baled and sold to reprocessors without ever seeing a MRF. They have been what we call “source separated” – sorted before collection – which usually results in cleaner waste streams and higher-quality bales to be sold.
Reprocessability
After materials are sorted and baled, whether at a MRF for residential recyclables or elsewhere for commercial recyclables, the bales are sold to reprocessors who then use the material to make new products. This may happen at a single place, or the material may travel through a whole new supply chain on its way to becoming a new product.
Just like a manufacturer wants high-quality raw materials to make their products, reprocessors want the cleanest material possible to make new products with recycled content. Products designed for easy reprocessing (using single materials, avoiding contaminants, and facilitating disassembly) are more likely to be successfully recycled. Effective reprocessing often requires materials to be relatively pure and made of just one kind of material, since items with multiple substrates can be difficult or impossible to separate. Contaminants (like food residues on packaging or mixed materials) can complicate reprocessing, reducing the quality of the recycled material or necessitating additional cleaning steps. Simplified designs allow for more straightforward and effective reprocessing.
Another aspect of reprocessing for plastic packaging is the vast difference in various types of plastic. For most consumers, plastic is plastic, but packaging folks will be the first to tell you that there are many different types that have different chemistries. For the most part, certain types of plastics need to be separated from each other to be reprocessed efficiently. Many reprocessors are challenged by contamination from other kinds of plastics in the bales they buy, which can lower the quality of the material they’re able to make from the recyclables. Folks who assess plastic’s recyclability often consult the Association of Plastic Recyclers (APR)’s Design Guides to understand reprocessing challenges or to design plastic products for later recyclability.
The availability and sophistication of reprocessing technologies also impacts an item’s reprocessability. Materials that can be easily processed with current technologies (e.g., repulping for paper, or melting, shredding, or chemical recycling for plastics) are more recyclable. Not all products are compatible with standard reprocessing techniques. Multi-layered materials, composites, or items with mixed material components (like plastic-metal hybrids) can be challenging to efficiently reprocess. For example, paper that is coated with plastic can be challenging to reprocess because the two materials may be near impossible to separate, even though both materials by themselves might be reprocessable. When papers are coated or combined with other materials, it can be useful to have repulpability and recycling testing done to see how recoverable the fiber is. Test standards exist to assess this. Many companies have made major efforts to design packaging that doesn’t require multiple materials to address this issue, but some kinds of packaging simply require more complexity to offer things like food safety.
End Markets
Even if a material can technically make it through the recycling process without any issue, it might not always be recycled in practice due to economic factors like the market demand for recycled materials and the price a MRF can get for the material it sells, or the availability of recycling infrastructure in that region. For MRFs to maintain their operations, their “product” (baled recycled materials) must be profitable and in demand. “End markets,” the buyers of these recyclables, that offer stable and high prices for recycled materials make recycling more economically viable. MRFs are more likely to process materials when they can expect a good return on their investment because if the prices of recycled materials fluctuate significantly, recycling can become less predictable and profitable. When deciding which products to recycle, MRFs essentially must ask themselves, “Does the material have a viable end market with willing buyers? Is there a market demand for this material/product in my region?”
End markets also often have strict quality requirements for recycled materials. If the recycled material does not meet these standards (due to contamination, degradation, or improper sorting), it may be rejected by buyers. These varying levels of quality, often delineated by “grades,” impact the price MRFs or collectors receive for the recyclables they bale. If a bale is a lower-grade, meaning lower quality, this can result in materials being downcycled into lower-value products or not recycled at all.
Regarding recycling infrastructure, technological innovations that improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of reprocessing materials can enhance their recyclability by opening paths to end markets. For example, advancements in new technologies, including those under the umbrella often called “chemical recycling,” can create new end markets for traditionally hard-to-recycle plastics, expanding their recyclability.
What is clear after going through all these steps is that a piece of packaging needs to check a lot of boxes to be considered truly recyclable. This can create challenges for brands and packaging designers who are trying to design for recyclability. For example, they may be able to take a product with multiple material types and redesign it to use only one so that it is reprocessable, but if that package still won’t travel through a MRF effectively, it still can’t really be called recyclable. To complicate matters further, each of these five factors can vary for the same material depending on what state or city you are in, and the capabilities of the specific MRF that material is sent to. Next, we’ll dive into how a MRF works.
A quick epilogue on non-packaging products: you may be wondering, having read that MRFs only sort paper and packaging materials, how it is that other products can be considered “recyclable.” For example, you may have seen things like tires, mattresses, electronics, or even clothes marketed as recyclable. These items can still be considered recyclable under the definition we walked through in this piece, they just go through different collection, sortation, and reprocessing than packaging products do.
For instance: say that you buy a piece of clothing from a company that says that you can recycle the piece when you’re done with it. Chances are that that company is offering their own take-back program or partnering with a special collection group that is specific to textiles. This process would allow the product to still fit the definition of recyclable because the company is collecting, sorting, and finding a reprocessor/end market for that clothing. It wouldn’t go through a MRF, but that’s because MRFs specifically handle paper and packaging for curbside programs. This is why labeling non-packaging items as “recyclable” can be perfectly legitimate but still cause consumer confusion. Many consumers see something labeled as recyclable and assume they should place it in their curbside bin, but a MRF will not sort and bale that material. It is critical that we better educate consumers about how to recycle non-packaging products too.